But who is watching?": Imaginary audience effect and adult play inhibition in urban public space

Urban spaces offer various spontaneous and design-led opportunities for ludic, also referred to as playful engagements. Yet, adult participation in ludic activities in the urban environment often remains constrained and scarce. This article adds to the growing body of ludic urban scholarship by engaging imaginary audience theory- the heightened perception of being observed and judged as an analytical lens for examining barriers to adult ludic engagement in public space. Drawing on qualitative research with nine South Asian migrant women participants from the small town of Ōamaru, New Zealand, the study analyses how internalised surveillance, cultural norms of respectability, and uncertainty about appropriate public behaviour inhibit adults' ludic activities. Data were gathered through two phenomenology-based workshops and photovoice. The within-sample patterns show that the imaginary audience effect often intensifies with age, gender, migration status, and cultural difference, producing heightened constraints on ludic engagement operating across all the participants. Grounded in the experiences of the participant cohort, the findings point to broader urban dynamics, allowing the article to argue a theoretical proposition that the imaginary audience effect, shaped by social conditioning, inhibits ludic activities in urban environments. This article then suggests that urban designs with collaborative, shared spaces and inclusive design elements can mitigate psychological barriers by diffusing perceived scrutiny, thereby normalising adult play in urban spaces. By synthesising insights from developmental psychology and ludic urbanism, the study advances a socio-psychological understanding of adults' play and offers practical implications for designing more inclusive and equitable ludic cities.