Influence Without Alliances: China, Pakistan, and Indirect Military Engagement in the Persian Gulf

This article examines how China expands security influence in the Persian Gulf without alliances, bases, or direct intervention. It introduces indirect military engagement to explain influence through technology diffusion, defence-industrial cooperation, intermediary partnerships, and partner adaptation. Focusing on Pakistan, it argues that Chinese systems gain regional relevance through Pakistani absorption, localisation, training, maintenance, and demonstration. Pakistan’s defence contacts with Gulf states and Iran create channels for observation and adaptation. Using arms-transfer data, defence agreements, technical evidence, and 2024–2026 conflict dynamics, the article shows how China shapes Gulf security through networked, partner-mediated diffusion, enhancing strategic autonomy and regional multipolarity order.