The training gap: Human factors challenges of ADAS adoption in developing countries and the infrastructure deficit to address them

OBJECTIVES: Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) are entering low- and middle-income country (LMIC) vehicle fleets at scale via used vehicle imports, yet the human factors infrastructure required for their safe use is largely absent. This structured conceptual review examines the structural amplification of known ADAS failure modes in LMIC settings and introduces a risk characterization framework. METHODS: A structured search of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and the Transportation Research International Documentation (TRID) database identified peer-reviewed literature on ADAS human factors published between 2000 and 2025. Grey literature on vehicle trade, road safety, and LMIC institutional infrastructure was also systematically retrieved. Findings were synthesized using an integrative approach to map documented failure modes against LMIC contextual factors, from which the amplification hypothesis and ADAS readiness-risk matrix were derived. RESULTS: A total of 35 sources met inclusion criteria: 24 peer-reviewed and scholarly sources and 11 institutional and grey literature reports. SAE Level 1 and 2 ADAS became standard in vehicles manufactured from approximately 2015 onward; 80% of used vehicle exports from the EU, Japan, and the U.S. are destined for LMICs. Every documented ADAS human factors failure mode is structurally amplified in LMICs because compensating institutional mechanisms are absent. Automatic emergency braking is a partial exception. The ADAS readiness-risk matrix identifies countries such as Nigeria and Kenya as approaching the high-penetration/low-readiness risk quadrant within the 2025 to 2035 decade. CONCLUSIONS: The convergence of accelerating ADAS diffusion and institutional unpreparedness constitutes an underrecognized road safety risk in LMICs. Priorities include LMIC-specific empirical research on ADAS mental models and trust calibration, training interventions adapted for low-literacy populations, and regulatory frameworks requiring ADAS disclosure at vehicle import.