Social–ecological systems adaptation and response to climate variability in Africa: a scoping review

Climate variability is intensifying across Africa, disrupting the delicate balance of interconnected human and environmental systems. While adaptation is urgently needed to protect livelihoods and biodiversity, evidence regarding which strategies work, and under what conditions, remains fragmented. This scoping review utilizes a social, ecological systems (SES) lens to synthesize documented adaptation strategies and their reported social and ecological outcomes. Following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, we systematically searched academic databases and grey literature for studies on African SES adaptation published through June 2025. Out of 61 identified records, 35 studies met the inclusion criteria, spanning agricultural, water, fisheries, and urban systems. Data were extracted and analyzed using inductive qualitative content analysis to identify recurring themes in strategies, governance, and outcomes. Based on the 35 included studies, the review identifies three primary clusters of adaptation: institutional (e.g., policy mainstreaming, co-management), behavioral (e.g., Indigenous knowledge, livelihood diversification), and technological (e.g., climate-resilient inputs, water–soil engineering). Results suggest that synergies between social and ecological outcomes are documented more frequently than trade-offs, especially in interventions involving nature-based solutions and integrated land–water planning. Reported adaptation effectiveness was frequently associated with hybrid governance frameworks that link formal and customary rules, predictable finance, and the routine integration of local knowledge. Conversely, stand-alone technological fixes were reported to perform unevenly in the absence of institutional support such as effective governance, secure land tenure, community participation, institutional capacity, social learning, and adequate financial and policy support. The findings indicate that effective adaptation in Africa is not a purely technical challenge but a deeply institutional and political process. The synthesis suggests that durable resilience is reported to emerge when technological tools are embedded within locally legitimate governance frameworks. We propose a standardized taxonomy for adaptation strategies to support clearer cross-regional comparison. Future research should prioritize long-term ecological monitoring and the use of mixed methods to better understand distributional effects and potential causal relationships in complex African social–ecological systems.