Paternal involvement and caregiving outcomes at three years: A study using municipal data in Japan

Abstract This study aimed to ascertain whether paternal involvement in childrearing at 18 months was associated with developmental and caregiving outcomes at the age of 3 years. We used the health examination records of 52,921 children born in Kitakyushu City, Japan, between 2013 and 2019, whose caregivers were designated to answer a question about paternal involvement at the 18‐month examination. Valid responses were given by 33,619 caregivers, of whom 21,956 (65.3%) reported consistent involvement. To adjust for confounding by child and family characteristics, 1:1 propensity score matching was applied, yielding 11,175 matched pairs of children with consistent versus inconsistent involvement. The primary outcome, physician‐flagged developmental issues, was slightly less prevalent among children with consistent paternal involvement (11.1% vs. 12.3%; relative risk .91, 95% CI .83–.99). Fewer children in this group were unable to say their own name (11.8% vs. 13.4%) or had difficulty dressing (5.5% vs. 7.0%). A lower proportion of caregivers reported concerns about childcare (19.6% vs. 23.5%) and frustration with childcare (16.3% vs. 20.3%). These findings suggest that consistent paternal engagement during toddlerhood is associated with slightly better child development and caregiver well‐being, highlighting its potential relevance to early childhood health promotion strategies.