Teaching for inclusion against the odds: inclusive pedagogy, adaptive expertise, and structural constraints in Malawian primary classrooms

Inclusive education research in low-resource systems documents overcrowding, material scarcity, and weak implementation, yet less is known about how teachers construct inclusion under such conditions. This qualitative interpretive single embedded case study examined how Malawian primary teachers understand learner diversity and enact inclusive pedagogy in heterogeneous classrooms. Data came from semi-structured interviews and classroom observations with 24 teachers from 12 purposively selected schools across urban, peri-urban, and rural settings. Reflexive thematic analysis was initially data-led and interpreted through Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory and Florian and Black-Hawkins’ inclusive pedagogy. Findings showed intersecting barriers involving academic under-preparedness, language, poverty, irregular attendance, and disability-related or unidentified learning needs. Teachers responded through code-switching, peer-assisted grouping, differentiated questioning, reduced pacing, individual follow-up, and affective encouragement. These practices are conceptualised as inclusive adaptive expertise, linking professional judgement to classroom, school, policy, language, and resource constraints and informing teacher education, specialist support, class size, and assessment reform.