Green synthesis of TiO₂ nanoparticles using allium sativum skin extract for acridine orange photocatalytic degradation: optimization via R

Green synthesis of Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO 2 ) using agricultural waste presents a sustainable solution for wastewater treatment. Here, we demonstrate an eco-friendly synthesis of TiO 2 NPs utilizing garlic skin waste (Allium sativum) as a natural reducing and stabilizing agent, eliminating hazardous chemicals. Characterization via SEM, EDXA, XRD, and TGA confirmed the formation of pure, thermally stable, crystalline anatase nanoparticles. Under UV light irradiation, the synthesized AS-TiO 2 NPs achieved a maximum Acridine Orange (AO) dye degradation efficiency of 94.62% within 20 min (dosage 1.0 g/L, pH 9, 55 °C, 80 ppm dye). The degradation kinetics strictly followed a pseudo-first-order model (R^2 = 0.9667). Furthermore, Response Surface Methodology (RSM) via a Box-Behnken Design (BBD) in R and Machine Learning validation confirmed the robustness and predictive accuracy of the process.