When the “alternative” becomes mainstream: online and underground schooling for Afghan girls after the education ban

Purpose This study examines how online and underground schools operate and what challenges they face following the ban. It also investigates strategies for navigating these challenges and explores the perceived effectiveness of alternative platforms, drawing on the International Association for Quality Assurance in Pre-Tertiary and Higher Education (QAHE) and the Afghanistan Education Sector Transitional Frameworks (AESTF), to propose context-specific improvements. Design/methodology/approach A qualitative multiple-case study design was employed, focusing on online and underground schools operating in Afghanistan. Data were collected through semi-structured, iterative interviews with 27 participants, including administrators, teachers, and students. Inductive thematic analysis was used to identify patterns and themes across the cases. Findings The findings indicate that as formal schooling for girls remains prohibited, alternative education has become the main form of learning for girls in Afghanistan. Another key finding of this study is the lack of formally recognized certification mechanisms. Despite these challenges, participants identified adaptive strategies that support student engagement and learning. Originality/value This study offers original insights by applying the QAHE and AESTF frameworks to examine alternative educational models in Afghanistan. It shifts the focus beyond deprivation by highlighting the agency of girls and educators in sustaining learning under restrictive conditions.