High-fidelity numerical modelling and sensitivity analysis of hail impact damage in photovoltaic modules

As photovoltaic (PV) deployment continues to expand, modules are increasingly exposed to environmental hazards such as hailstorms, with direct implications for structural integrity and long-term performance. This study presents a high-fidelity finite-element framework for analysing hail impact on PV modules. A three-dimensional model is developed in ABAQUS, where both the hailstone and PV panel are treated as deformable bodies with nonlinear material behaviour and geometric nonlinearity. The hailstone is represented using a Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) formulation to capture large deformation during impact. The model is verified against an aluminium-plate impact benchmark and further compared with published experimental observations for hail impacts on glass-covered PV panels. A parametric study is conducted considering hail size, impact velocity, impact angle, and glass thickness. Damage is quantified as the percentage of glass elements exceeding the adopted strain-based damage criterion. The results show a pronounced nonlinear damage response, with a threshold at approximately 30 mm hail size. Hail size is identified as the dominant parameter, followed by impact velocity and impact angle, while glass thickness has only a limited influence within the investigated range. The proposed framework provides a basis for assessing hail-induced damage trends and for informing the design of more resilient PV systems.