Emerging processing technologies and functional ingredients for gluten-free bread: effects on structure, nutrition, sensory quality, and shelf life

Abstract Gluten-free bread remains technologically challenging because the absence of gluten compromises dough viscoelasticity, gas retention, crumb structure, shelf life, and sensory acceptance, while starch-based formulations often provide limited nutritional value. This review critically integrates recent evidence on functional ingredients and emerging technologies for improving gluten-free bread. Hydrocolloids, dietary fibres, pseudocereals, legumes, and proteins are examined in relation to water distribution, interfacial stabilisation, starch gelatinisation, protein–starch interactions, gas-cell stability, and nutritional enrichment. Sourdough fermentation, germination, extrusion, high hydrostatic pressure, ultrasound, cold plasma, microwave heating, and ohmic heating are also evaluated according to their effects on gluten-free dough/batter rheology, loaf volume, crumb texture, bioactive compounds, sensory properties, and storage stability. Evidence indicates that no single ingredient or technology reproduces the multifunctionality of gluten. The most effective approaches combine complementary structuring agents with matrix-specific processing conditions and optimised hydration. However, responses depend on flour composition, ingredient dosage, process intensity, and production scale, while nutritional enrichment may compromise volume, softness, or sensory acceptability. Future studies should prioritise standardised rheological and sensory methods, mechanistic evaluation of multicomponent systems, pilot-scale validation, and multi-objective optimisation of technological, nutritional, sensory, and shelf-life attributes to facilitate the commercial development of high-quality gluten-free bread.