Optimal telepresence experience in heritage tourism: A multidimensional scale and its impact on tourist behavior

Virtual reality (VR) is increasingly being integrated into on-site heritage tourism, yet little is known about how visitors evaluate hybrid experiences combining physical heritage environments with VR-mediated reconstructions. To address this gap, drawing on telepresence and flow theory, this study conceptualizes and validates Optimal Telepresence Experience (OTE) as a higher-order experiential construct reflecting visitors' overall technology-enhanced heritage experiences. Using a multi-stage scale development process with data collected at a heritage museum in Hue, Vietnam, the study develops and validates the OTE measurement instrument. The findings show that OTE, reflected through emotional, cognitive, and functional dimensions, strengthens visitors’ memory formation and revisit intention. Theoretically, the study advances immersive tourism research by conceptualizing and validating OTE as a higher-order experiential construct for hybrid technology-enhanced heritage experiences. Practically, the validated OTE scale provides a tool for designing and evaluating VR-enhanced heritage experiences that foster deeper visitor engagement and behavioral outcomes.