Extending diffusion of innovation: ethical considerations, risks and dehumanization factors in generative artificial intelligence adoption

Purpose This paper analyses students’ perceptions of generative artificial intelligence (GAI) usage in open and distance learning (ODL). It establishes an extended diffusion of innovation (DOI) model framework to understand the drivers and critical barriers as reported by students, offering a balanced perspective on the factors that influence student adoption decisions in online learning. Design/methodology/approach The study used a quantitative research technique, collecting self-reported data via a structured questionnaire from 337 ODL students in Pakistan. Partial least squares structural equation modeling was used to estimate direct, mediating and moderating effects to analyze the proposed model. The findings reflect student perceptions only and do not measure actual learning outcomes or institutional feasibility. Findings The findings confirm that relative advantage and compatibility are significant positive predictors of students' GAI adoption intentions. Conversely, ethical issues, perceived risk and dehumanization of learning are significant negative obstacles. These relationships are mediated by the intention to adopt. Prior expertise in GAI moderately and positively moderates the intention-adoption relationship. Trialability had no significant impact, challenging classical DOI predictions in the GAI context. Research limitations/implications Evaluating the direct associations and mediating role of intention to adopt GAI, the results provide valuable insights for ODL educational institutions where the use of GAI is unavoidable. Additionally, it examines the moderating role of prior GAI expertise in influencing the adoption behavior. The study proposes an extended DOI framework that ODL educational institutions must inculcate to ensure GAI adoption in true spirit. Practical implications ODL institutions should note that students report strong ethical and risk concerns that suppress adoption intentions. However, these findings are based on student perceptions only; institutional decision makers should validate these concerns against operational feasibility, cost, infrastructure and pedagogical objectives before implementing policy changes. Social implications The research demonstrates that from the student perspective, a balance between technological progress and human-centered education is desirable. Addressing social issues regarding dehumanization and ethics may improve student acceptance of GAI, but whether such integration improves learning outcomes or damages interpersonal relationships requires further investigation. Originality/value The study is innovative in integrating three critical barriers: ethical considerations, perceived risks and dehumanization of learning as major constructs within the DOI framework from the student perspective. This provides a more detailed model for understanding student adoption of transformative technologies such as GAI in learning environments.