FEEDBACK-REGULATED AND BIOELECTRONIC DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS: TOWARDS CLOSED-LOOP THERAPEUTICS

Conventional drug delivery systems generally operate as open-loop platforms based on fixed dosing regimens that do not account for dynamic physiological variations during disease progression. This often leads to suboptimal therapeutic outcomes, fluctuations in drug concentration, and increased risk of adverse drug reactions. To overcome these limitations, feedback-regulated and bioelectronic drug delivery systems have emerged as advanced therapeutic strategies capable of responding to real-time physiological signals. Feedback-regulated systems utilize disease-associated biomarkers such as glucose levels, pH variations, enzymatic activity, and inflammatory mediators to autonomously control drug release, thereby mimicking natural biological feedback mechanisms that maintain physiological homeostasis. Bioelectronic drug delivery systems further enhance therapeutic precision by integrating biosensors, microelectronics, control algorithms, and programmable actuators for real-time monitoring and automated drug administration. The integration of these technologies enables closed-loop therapeutic platforms capable of continuous sensing, signal processing, and adaptive drug delivery. These systems have demonstrated promising potential in the management of chronic diseases including diabetes, neurological disorders, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory conditions, and cancer. Overall, closed-loop bioelectronic drug delivery systems represent a significant advancement toward intelligent, personalized, and precision medicine, although challenges related to sensor stability, device biocompatibility, and regulatory approval remain to be addressed.