Adaptation amid autocratization in Hong Kong: the roles of powerlessness and secondary control in emigration and self-censorship

Abstract This study examines how citizens adapt to autocratization in Hong Kong following its post-2019 authoritarian transition. Existing research has examined distinct forms of citizen responses to political repression, such as emigration and self-censorship, often within separate scholarly literatures. Drawing on the exit-voice framework, we develop an integrated framework that links these adaptive responses to two psychological orientations: perceived powerlessness and secondary control. Powerlessness fosters system justification and curbs proactive engagement, whereas secondary control enables individuals to accommodate and adjust to prevailing circumstances. Drawing on two survey datasets, we find that powerlessness is associated with lower emigration intentions but higher self-censorship, while secondary control is associated with lower emigration intentions and, in most models, greater self-censorship. Additional analyses show that secondary control weakens the association between powerlessness and both outcomes, suggesting partially substitutable routes to adaptation. By integrating insights from the exit-voice framework and political psychology, the study contributes to broader scholarship on citizen adaptation under autocratization and political repression.