Development of sodium alginate/polyvinyl alcohol/nanocellulose scaffolds loaded with carvacrol for bone regeneration application

Bone defects caused by trauma, degenerative disorders and congenital abnormalities remain a major clinical challenge, necessitating the development of bioactive scaffolds that can promote effective bone regeneration. In this study, a composite scaffold composed of sodium alginate, polyvinyl alcohol and nanocellulose was fabricated and enhanced with carvacrol, a phytocompound with antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. The novelty of this study lies in the incorporation of carvacrol into an SA/PVA/nC scaffold system to simultaneously enhance the physicochemical characteristics, biomineralization potential and osteoblast compatibility for bone tissue engineering applications. The fabricated scaffolds were characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray Diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis and compression testing. In addition, porosity, swelling behavior, surface wettability, biomineralization, cell proliferation and calcium deposition were evaluated. Carvacrol incorporation altered the scaffold morphology, wettability and mechanical performance while maintaining structural integrity. Biomineralization studies demonstrated enhanced calcium-phosphate deposition in carvacrol-loaded scaffolds, particularly in the SA/PVA/nC/CA5 group. Furthermore, MTT and Alizarin Red S assays showed excellent cytocompatibility and increased calcium deposition in MG-63 cells, indicating an improved osteogenic potential. In general, the developed SA/PVA/nC/carvacrol scaffolds exhibited favourable physicochemical, mechanical and biological properties for bone regeneration applications. However, this study was limited to in vitro characterization and further in vivo investigations are required to validate their clinical applicability.