Advances in nanoparticle-based bilirubin sensors: Materials, mechanisms, and translational potential

This review summarizes the latest developments in bilirubin detection using various nanomaterials and their hybrid nanocomposites. Detection strategies, including colorimetric, electrochemical, and optical sensing platforms, are discussed in detail, highlighting their mechanisms, performance metrics, and practical applicability. The development of bilirubin, a vital metabolic byproduct of heme catabolism and a crucial biomarker for liver function and associated conditions such as hemolytic anemia, hepatitis, and jaundice, is examined in this paper. Conventional bilirubin detection techniques, including diazo-based and enzymatic assays, often suffer from issues like instability, high cost, and complex sample preparation. In recent years, metal and metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as efficient sensing materials owing to their tunable optical, catalytic, and electrochemical properties. Finally, the challenges and future perspectives for the development of portable, cost-effective, and noninvasive bilirubin sensors are addressed.