Blended academic supervision and teacher instructional behavior: Extending Glickman's supervisory framework

Academic supervision frequently remains episodic because principals face constraints related to time, workload, and the continuity of professional support for teachers. Although digital technology has increasingly been incorporated into supervisory practices, existing approaches have largely emphasized procedural efficiency rather than strengthening continuous professional learning. This study aimed to develop and evaluate a blended academic supervision framework that integrates face-to-face and digital supervision to improve principals’ supervisory competence and teachers’ instructional behavior. The study employed a research and development design involving 13 principals and 68 teachers from 13 Indonesian elementary schools. The framework was developed through expert validation, limited and expanded field trials, and implementation using a one-group pretest–posttest design. Quantitative data were analyzed using paired sample t -tests, normalized gain scores, and effect sizes, while qualitative data from observations, interviews, and reflective documentation supported interpretation of the findings. The findings indicate that the blended academic supervision framework improved principals’ supervisory competence and teachers’ instructional behavior. More importantly, the results suggest that these improvements were associated not simply with the adoption of digital technology but with the model's capacity to sustain professional dialogue, systematic reflection, continuous feedback, and collaborative professional learning throughout the supervision cycle. Digital technology served as an enabler, extending professional interaction rather than replacing face-to-face supervision. This study extends the instructional leadership literature by demonstrating how Developmental Supervision can be operationalized within a blended academic supervision framework, providing both a practical model for schools undergoing digital transformation and a conceptual framework linking Developmental Supervision, instructional leadership, and technology-enabled professional learning.