Spatial association network characteristics and influence mechanisms of urban land use efficiency from a complex network perspective: county-level evidence from the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei urban agglomeration

Urban agglomerations have emerged as critical platforms for optimising territorial spatial patterns and promoting regional coordination and high-quality development. These regions exhibit significantly structured characteristics, yet the cross-regional association mechanisms of urban land-use efficiency remain underexplored. This study employs the super-efficiency SBM model and complex network analysis to investigate the structural characteristics and driving mechanisms of the urban land-use efficiency (ULUE) spatial association network at the county level in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration from 2005 to 2020. The findings are as follows: (1) Overall, ULUE in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei urban agglomeration exhibited an upward trend, although significant spatial disparities persist; (2) The spatial association network of ULUE exhibits stronger agglomeration than diffusion, with a hierarchical structure; (3) Inter-county linkages have become increasingly tight, with limited spatial spillover effects in core counties of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, while notable spatial interaction and synergy have emerged in boundary areas between municipalities, reflecting a weakening of administrative boundary barriers; (4) The network structure is evolving towards greater centralisation, with core county nodes exerting stronger influence on the stability of the overall structure, yet the overall pattern shows initial signs of transitioning from a “core-periphery” configuration to a “multi-centre, multi-layer” form; (5) Analysis of driving mechanisms reveals that changes in factors such as industrial structure, infrastructure, and government regulatory capacity reflect positive effects of regional integration policies, whereas disparities in economic development remain a key constraint on the spatial coordination of ULUE. Based on these findings, optimisation strategies are proposed, including constructing metropolitan and multi-centre systems, integrating multimodal infrastructure networks, strengthening cross-regional cooperation and governance models, and promoting deeper collaboration within industrial chains.