Birding as a global leisure practice: a multilevel reframing of recreation specialization

Birding is one of the most heavily increasing nature-based leisure activities around the world. In contrast to other leisure activities, birding can be cognitively demanding when it comes to identification skills, species knowledge, and pattern recognition. In this context, it is important to understand the relationships between individual-level factors and cross-cultural factors on birding specialization. We collected data between December 2020 and April 2021 from 25 countries (N = 4041) to analyze economic indicators, cultural background (individualism-collectivism continuum), and environmental values to understand their relationships with birding specialization. Higher specialized birders were found in countries with higher economic development and higher environmental awareness. In detail, higher skill/knowledge and behavior were found in more individualistic societies that place a higher value on leisure. Higher specialization behavior was associated with higher individualism, a higher importance of leisure (over work), and higher environmental concern at the country level. Skill/knowledge, in turn, was solely predicted by individualism-collectivism, with higher skill/knowledge in more individualistic societies. Understanding these factors can help tailor conservation and recreational policies to support birding as an inclusive, educational, and environmentally beneficial leisure activity.