Intrusive “flashforward” imagery and anxiety: development and validation of the Oxford Flashforwards in Anxiety Scale (OFAS)

Abstract Background Anxiety disorders are prevalent, often emerging during adolescence and young adulthood. Cognitive accounts highlight intrusive “flashforward” (future-oriented) imagery across anxiety disorders, as sensory-based, affect-laden, involuntary mental simulations of future threats, often experienced as plausible or impending. But existing imagery measures overlook future-oriented imagery, confound it with other anxiety symptoms, and lack comprehensive validation, limiting theoretical and clinical insights. We aimed to develop a psychometrically sound tool capturing flashforwards and examine their associations with anxiety problems. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional study with young adults aged 16–24 ( N = 538) – a developmental period when many anxiety disorders emerge – with a two-week follow-up ( n = 306). The Oxford Flashforwards in Anxiety Scale (OFAS) was developed based on theory, existing measures, and stakeholder involvement. We administered the OFAS, alongside Generalised Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) and other key measures, performed exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, and evaluated reliability and validity, including lagged ( n = 124) and network analyses. Results A 10-item, one-factor model emerged with good fit. Reliability was high. Evidence supported concurrent, incremental, and discriminant validity. Measurement invariance was shown across age groups (≤ 19 vs. >19 years). Lagged analysis showed that flashforward imagery was prospectively associated with anxiety two weeks later, above and beyond baseline anxiety and covariates, supporting predictive validity. Network analysis revealed that flashforward imagery, while not the central node, was closely connected to worry – the most central symptom in the anxiety network – further supporting construct validity. Conclusions The validated scale offers a novel, brief tool to assess the overall salience of flashforwards - specifically anchored to mental imagery and without conflation with avoidance or hyperarousal symptoms. It promotes the study of flashforwards as a distinct cognitive process in anxiety and can provide a foundation to guide anxiety treatment innovation.