A systematic cost-effective assessment of multiple grassland restoration methods in China

Extensive grassland restoration programs were being expanded nationwide in response to the pervasive and severe degradation of grasslands in China. However, there was a significant dearth of quantitative cost-effective analyses pertaining to grassland ecosystems. The lack hindered the selection of the most cost-effective approaches to achieve restoration goals. After reviewing 214 studies, we comprehensively analyzed the precise restoration costs (distinguishing one-time inputs and ongoing inputs) and effectiveness of 17 diverse grassland restoration methods across China's three most prevalent grassland types. One-time inputs refer to non-recurring expenditures during implementation, including machinery, seeds, fertilizers, fencing, and labor, accounting for over 50% of total costs for most methods. Ongoing inputs are annual recurring costs for maintenance, encompassing ecological compensation for herders, maintenance staff salaries, and opportunity costs. Results showed that: (1) grassland restoration enhanced biodiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality but 17 recovery methods had significant differences in effectiveness; (2) China's grassland restoration methods tended to be costly while grazing management was a low-cost approach; and (3) grazing management could be a viable and cost-effective approach across the main grasslands in China. Our results provided valuable insights for policy-makers aiming to enhance the cost-effectiveness of grassland restoration projects in China, thereby addressing the financial barriers associated with scaling up restoration efforts at a national level.