Nano-based formulations as a new and efficient tool in Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) management in Africa (review)

Abstract Background The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is one of the most invasive, destructive, and polyphagous insects threatening major crops such as maize and sorghum across Africa. Its high-speed flight capability, long-distance migration, and high fecundity (up to 1,500 eggs per female) contribute to rapid population establishment and significant yield losses (20–50%). While chemical insecticides remain the primary control method, they cause environmental pollution, pesticide residues, health risks, and increasing insect resistance. Traditional pesticides are insufficient for sustainable agriculture. Nanotechnology offers innovative solutions by improving pesticide penetration, solubility, selectivity, and controlled release. Main text This review critically examines nano-based formulations-including nanoparticles, nano-emulsions, nanogels, and nano-capsules-as promising alternatives for S. frugiperda management. We compare these formulations with conventional pesticides, highlighting advantages such as enhanced efficacy at lower doses, reduced environmental persistence, and decreased resistance development. The review synthesizes current knowledge on nano-formulation impacts on S. frugiperda biology, their environmental fate, effects on non-target organisms (pollinators, aquatic life, natural enemies), and identifies critical research gaps specific to African agricultural contexts. Conclusions Nano-formulations represent a transformative approach for sustainable pest management, but their successful implementation requires addressing regulatory frameworks, cost-effectiveness, farmer adoption pathways, and comprehensive environmental risk assessments. Future research must prioritize field-scale validation, long-term ecological studies, and development of Africa-specific application protocols.