3D-printed PLCL scaffolds for breast reconstructive tissue engineering: a pre-clinical study in a rabbit model

Mastectomy is required in 30–40% of breast cancer cases. Current reconstructive strategies are implant-based or autologous procedures which present some limitations such as high complication rates and unpredictable outcomes. Tissue engineering using bioresorbable poly(L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) (PLCL) scaffolds represents a promising alternative. In this study, two types of 3D-printed PLCL scaffolds were developed and characterized, differing in their internal architecture by center-to-center distance: 3 mm for PLCL-M1 and 6 mm for PLCL-M2. PLCL-M1 and PLCL-M2 scaffolds demonstrated good biocompatibility in vitro, with no cytotoxicity or pro-inflammatory cytokine release. In vivo implantation in a rabbit model over 36 weeks confirmed successful tissue integration, mild inflammatory reactions, and an angiogenic response peaking at 12 weeks. PLCL-M1 and PLCL-M2 scaffolds showed comparable vascularization capacity and similar degradation profiles, stabilizing between weeks 24 and 36. These results demonstrate that both PLCL-M1 and PLCL-M2 scaffolds exhibit favourable biocompatibility, supporting vascularization and tissue integration without eliciting significant inflammatory responses. Notably, PLCL-M2 scaffold displayed a compressive modulus within the mechanical range of native adipose tissue (~ 20 kPa), making it a promising candidate for soft tissue reconstruction following mastectomy.