Enhancing teacher self-efficacy to sustain inclusive education: restructuring teacher education

Purpose This research paper explores the relationship between teacher education and pre-service teacher (PT) and in-service teacher (IT) self-efficacy beliefs toward sustainable inclusive education. In line with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)’s call for monitoring and evaluation, this study examines how current teacher training and education programs strengthen PT and IT self-efficacy beliefs to support inclusive practices. Design/methodology/approach This research paper used a mixed-method approach to examine pre-service and in-service teachers' beliefs and self-efficacy regarding inclusive education. The study used the Beliefs about Learning and Teaching Questionnaire (BLTQ) and the Teacher Efficacy for Inclusive Practices (TEIP) scale to collect quantitative data from 56 graduate MA teachers, divided into pre-service and in-service categories and then conducted interviews with 14 participants. Findings The study's findings revealed that PTs and ITs held more positive beliefs about flexible instruction, incremental views of ability and positive self-efficacy in instruction and collaboration. The findings suggested only small descriptive differences in instructional and self-efficacy beliefs between PTs and ITs and are therefore reported as exploratory patterns. Teacher interviews further emphasized the importance of mandating inclusion courses across all education specializations and running advanced specialized courses and workshops offered by inclusion specialists. Research limitations/implications While this study investigated PTs’ and ITs’ self-efficacy beliefs toward inclusive education, the small sample size of graduate teachers limits the generalizability of the results. To address these limitations, future research studies with larger samples and balanced numbers of PTs and ITs could improve the reliability of group comparisons and strengthen generalizability. Practical implications Primary priorities for policymakers and educators are to initiate critical reforms to teacher education and training programs, including (1) mandating introductory inclusion courses across all graduate education specializations, (2) conducting field trips to autism and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder centers and (3) providing access to specialized inclusion professionals, especially during the practicum. Social implications This study highlights the critical role of restructuring teacher education programs to strengthen pre-service and in-service teachers' self-efficacy in implementing inclusive education in the UAE and the broader GCC region. Improved teacher preparation can bridge the gap between ambitious national inclusive policies and classroom realities, fostering greater acceptance of diversity, stronger parent–school partnerships and long-term societal benefits. Ultimately, investing in teacher self-efficacy advances social justice and helps build tolerant, cohesive Gulf societies aligned with national visions for sustainable development. Originality/value By integrating the United Nations Theoretical Framework of Inclusive Education (2016) with Bandura's self-efficacy theory (1977–1997), examining both PTs and ITs and using a mixed-methods approach that is not commonly used in this area, this research contributes to both global understanding and the local advancement of inclusive education in the UAE and the broader GCC region, calling for targeted reforms in teacher education structures and curriculum design to better align with national visions and the UN framework. It highlights the value of mastery and vicarious experiences in building positive beliefs while revealing persistent theory-practice gaps that resonate with broader calls to reform teacher education programs across the GCC and globally.