The Importance and Rarity of Spatial Replication in Landscape Genetics

Abstract Purpose of Review Conserving ecological connectivity is important for maintaining resilient and genetically diverse populations. Landscape genetic analyses represent a powerful tool to help model connectivity for conservation, but there exist risks in improper extrapolation of landscape genetic inferences. Spatially replicated analyses (conducted across multiple study areas) represent a method for developing more generalizable landscape genetic inferences, but the frequency of the practice is unclear. Here, we reviewed empirical landscape genetic literature to quantify the prevalence of replicated studies, characterize motivations for replication, and assess how often researchers compare landscape characteristics between study areas. This review also provided an opportunity to characterize systematic biases in landscape genetics such as those associated with taxonomic groups or region. Recent Findings Of 544 landscape genetic studies published between 2011 and 2026, only 88 (16.2%) employed a replicated design, and this proportion has not increased over time. Among replicated studies, assessing generalizability across landscapes was the most common stated motivation (45.5%), yet only 30.7% formally compared landscape characteristics between study areas, despite evidence that landscape variability is a critical determinant of whether landscape genetic patterns are detectable. We also found a strong taxonomic bias in landscape genetic studies towards mammals and regional biases towards North America and Europe. Summary Spatial replication remains rare in landscape genetics despite its recognized importance for producing generalizable inferences that can support conservation management. We recommend that researchers explicitly incorporate replication into study design and formally characterize landscape variability across study areas. Such practices are essential for reducing false negatives, contextualizing site-specific results, and ultimately advancing the utility of landscape genetics as a tool for managing connectivity.