Uncertainty propagation and intercomparison of multi-sensor measurements of vegetation stress in sub-optimal conditions

Abstract Purpose This study evaluates the metrological consistency and uncertainty propagation of spectral reflectance and vegetation indices derived from multiple remote sensing sensors under sub-optimal and variable illumination conditions. While multi-sensor data fusion is increasingly common in precision farming, the extent to which sensor differences arise from biological variation versus measurement uncertainty remains poorly quantified. Methods and results Field measurements were conducted on spring wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) using three ground-based field spectroradiometers and two uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAV)-mounted multispectral cameras. Following a standardised Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM) framework, uncertainties from sensor noise, spatial plot heterogeneity, and transient cloud cover were propagated using Monte Carlo simulations. The results indicate that total reflectance uncertainty peaked at approximately 11% in the red-edge and near-infrared regions, primarily driven by plot-level heterogeneity and fluctuating irradiance. Among the evaluated indices, the Optimized Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (OSAVI) demonstrated the highest stability across platforms, whereas the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) proved highly sensitive to environmental noise, leading to metrological breakdown in sensor interoperability. The findings demonstrate that under unstable atmospheric conditions, the window for reliable multi-sensor data integration is limited to synchronous acquisitions within minutes. Conclusion This research provides a rigorous statistical foundation for identifying the limits of sensor agreement, ensuring that management decisions in precision agriculture are based on true crop signals rather than measurement artifacts.