Forest loss and greenhouse gas emissions associated with charcoal production and supply to Bonga town in the Kafa Biosphere Reserve southwestern Ethiopia

Charcoal production is a major driver of deforestation and forest degradation in Ethiopia. Although Kafa Biosphere Reserve (KBR) is an ecologically important hotspot in Ethiopia, limited attention has been given to threats arising from energy demand. We quantified the charcoal supply to Bonga Town and evaluated its environmental impacts in the area. Data were collected through a preliminary field survey, household surveys, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and daily monitoring of charcoal supplied to Bonga Town in 2020. A total of 108 households were randomly selected. Both qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive and numerical statistics in R. The results revealed that the top three preferred tree species for charcoal production were Millettia ferruginea , Ehretia cymosa , and Vepris dainellii, two of which are endemic to Ethiopia. The results also show that the five major entry points supply charcoal to Bonga Town with approximately 499 bags daily, totaling about 182,183 bags annually. This is equivalent to 15 tons per day and 5,449 tons of charcoal per year. There were significant differences among the five studied inlet sites in daily and annual charcoal supply, the amount of dry wood mass extracted, the number of trees felled, the forest area disturbed, and CO 2 emissions, with the highest values recorded at Kaya Kela and Keja Araba. In total, 27,244 tons of dry wood were consumed, resulting in the felling of 355,354 trees and the disturbance of 895 ha of forest area to produce 5,449 tons of charcoal for Bonga town, with annual emissions of 68,110 tons of CO 2 equivalents. Native species, including endemic species, are under threat from charcoal production and supply. Furthermore, the quantities of charcoal produced and supplied and the associated impacts, including tree loss, forest area disturbed, and associated greenhouse gas emission vary spatially across the KBR areas. Therefore, urgent area-based interventions and sustainable energy solutions are needed to protect the ecosystem while supporting rural livelihoods and urban energy demands.