An Explainable Hybrid Machine Learning Approach Based on MPSO-XGBoost for Pest Density Prediction in Almond Orchards

Accurate prediction of pest density and population levels in almond production is of great importance for crop yield, the prevention of quality losses, and the effectiveness of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies. Complex feature interactions in agricultural field data can affect both the predictive performance and interpretability of machine learning models. In this study, an explainable hybrid machine learning framework combining Mutated Particle Swarm Optimization (MPSO), XGBoost classification, and rule extraction was developed to classify pest insect density levels. The proposed approach was evaluated using two complementary validation settings. First, it was compared with 16 classification algorithms, including ensemble, deep learning, and rule-based methods, under stratified 5-fold cross-validation, achieving a mean accuracy of 79.63% and a mean Weighted F1-Score of 79.79%. In addition, nested stratified 5-fold cross-validation was employed to separate MPSO-based hyperparameter optimization from outer-fold performance evaluation. Under this more rigorous evaluation, the proposed approach achieved a mean accuracy of 79.27 ± 1.66% and a mean Weighted F1-Score of 79.29 ± 1.38%. Furthermore, interpretable IF–THEN decision rules were derived from the trained XGBoost decision structures to provide a transparent representation of the feature–threshold combinations associated with the classification decisions.