A comprehensive review of the multifaceted contributions of nanoparticles and their roles in revolutionizing clinical hepatology, oncology, and virology research

In this manuscript, we review various types of nanoparticles (NPs), discuss their sustainable features, and elucidate their interactions with biological systems, specifically those identified as involving limited toxicity to the host. Our main focus is hepatic fibrosis (HF), which is a disorder of chronic liver damage that progresses to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma without proper treatment, and is a major health concern worldwide. Current therapies for HF face challenges associated with poor targeting, limited efficacy, and toxicity concerns, all factors that drive the demand for advanced drug delivery systems. Sustainable nanostructured materials are currently being developed for several theranostic applications, notably targeted drug release in HF, thereby harnessing the potential of nanotechnology to improve therapeutic effectiveness. Drug delivery systems comprised of both inorganic and organic NPs have revolutionized the management of HF by facilitating multi-drug regimens, enhanced barrier penetration, and accurate intracellular targeting. Here, we delineate the pathophysiology of HF and its clinical challenges, highlighting the mechanisms of NP drug delivery systems that target the fibrotic microenvironment. We also consider several applications of NPs and their contributions in the fields of oncology and virology. Specifically, we review our current understanding of nanoscale interactions with virus particles and their potential for new methods to treat human immunodeficiency virus, influenza viruses, and respiratory syncytial virus. Among these directions, we review current efforts to design NPs that target severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 and hepatitis viruses, notably those that can be used tosubvert the production of viral components and prevent virus replication. We also touch briefly on the NP-mediated immunomodulatory interactions as a means to treat hantavirus infection. We conclude with a discussion of the future NPs, highlighting several critical commercial aspects of this technology.