Teaching for critical thinking under constraint: Secondary science teachers’ pedagogical practices and systemic barriers in Pakistani Public schools

Critical thinking is widely recognized as a central goal of contemporary education, yet in many school systems it remains overshadowed by syllabus coverage, examination preparation, and content transmission. This qualitative study explored how secondary school science teachers conceptualize critical thinking, the pedagogical practices they report using to foster it, and the systemic constraints shaping its implementation in Pakistani public secondary schools. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 12 science teachers teaching Biology, Chemistry, and Physics across four public secondary schools. Interview data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Findings indicate that teachers generally conceptualize critical thinking as independent reasoning, questioning, explanation, problem-solving, and applying scientific knowledge to real-life situations. Participants reported using inquiry-oriented questioning, classroom discussions, collaborative learning, demonstrations, activities, and structured problem-solving to promote these skills. However, implementation was constrained by curriculum overload, limited instructional time, high-stakes examinations, overcrowded classrooms, inadequate resources, and insufficient sustained professional support. The study concludes that lecture-based teaching should not be interpreted simply as teacher resistance to change but as an adaptive response to systemic pressures. Sustainable development of critical thinking requires closer alignment among assessment practices, curriculum pacing, resource provision, and continuous professional development within secondary science education.