Formative Feedback in a Resource-Constrained Ethiopian Primary School: Teacher Practice, Student Engagement, and Context

Formative feedback is central to assessment for learning because it can help learners understand expectations, identify gaps in understanding, and improve subsequent learning. However, less is known about how formative feedback is understood and enacted in resource-constrained primary-school contexts. This study explored how Ethiopian primary-school teachers understand and enact formative feedback and how teacher, student, and contextual conditions shape feedback practices. Guided by Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), the study employed a qualitative instrumental case-study design at a government primary school in Asella, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with five teachers and the school principal, classroom observations, and a focus group discussion involving five students and three Parent–Teacher Association representatives. Data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis, with SCT applied as an interpretive lens. Four themes emerged: teachers’ understanding and enactment of feedback; feedback, student engagement, and learning experiences; contextual conditions supporting feedback; and challenges and tensions affecting implementation. Teachers generally understood feedback as supporting learning, motivation, confidence, and participation. However, observations revealed a gap between formative intentions and enacted practices, with whole-class oral correction more common than sustained dialogue, individualized feedback, and opportunities for revision. Large classes, limited instructional time, assessment pressures, resource constraints, and differences in student engagement shaped implementation. The findings indicate that strengthening formative feedback requires teacher and student feedback literacy, relevant professional learning, and school conditions that enable dialogue, reflection, and revision.