Policy packaging and public acceptance: how size, combinations, and context shape support

Abstract Policy packages – bundles of multiple policy instruments that pursue a shared policy goal, often by pairing a primary instrument with ancillary instruments – are increasingly recognized as an effective strategy for overcoming opposition to climate policy instruments. We examine how package size (the number of ancillary instruments), policy type, and local context shape public acceptance, addressing key gaps in the literature. Using a randomized survey experiment in five small-to-medium Norwegian cities, we vary four primary instruments (road toll increases, parking charge increases, parking space reductions, and street closures) and bundle them with zero to three ancillary instruments. We find that adding ancillary instruments generally increases acceptance, but effects depend on the primary instrument and the coherence of the package. Price-based instruments, especially road toll increases, show relatively stable acceptance across package configurations, whereas more access-restrictive instruments such as street closures are highly context- and package-sensitive. Certain combinations reduce acceptance, indicating that misaligned bundles can backfire. Overall, the results show that policy packaging can increase public acceptance of restrictive transport policies, but only when ancillary instruments are strategically selected and coherent with the burden imposed by the primary instrument.