Lifelong, Place‐Based and Gameful Design Perceptions on Virtual Reality Immersive Learning Experiences

ABSTRACT Background There is a need to better understand how immersive technologies, specifically virtual reality (VR), can support learning across the lifespan and in different learning settings. Prior work emphasizes the importance of empirical investigations that include diverse learner characteristics, examine how these diverse elements relate to learning outcomes, and identify mechanisms that may enable or constrain effective learning. Scholars also advocate for interdisciplinary approaches that integrate immersive technologies and thoughtful design to support meaningful learning experiences. Objectives This study examines how learners' perceptions of the immersive learning experience with Watershed Explorers: Environmental Issues in desktop VR (dVR) and headset VR (hVR) are associated with their reported engagement and motivation across formal, non‐formal, and informal learning settings and a wide age range. Methods Data were collected over 6 months using convenience sampling. The dataset included 151 participants aged 8–90 across formal, non‐formal, and informal learning settings. The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL) informed construct selection, and the Technology‐enhanced Lifelong Learning Ecology (TeLLE) conceptual framework guided the regression approach. Analyses examined how learners' perceived VR affordances (immersion and presence), perceived gameful design features (narrative, tutorial, and agency), perceived local context (place‐based content), as well as learning settings (formal, non‐formal, informal), device (dVR or hVR), and age were associated with their reported affective outcomes (engagement and motivation). Survey‐mode differences (i.e., embedded survey for dVR; paper survey for hVR) align with device conditions and represent a limitation for interpreting device comparisons. Results and Conclusions Participants across learning settings and the sampled age range reported high perceived immersion and presence. Perceived gameful design showed the strongest associations with self‐reported affective outcomes, followed by perceived VR affordances and perceived local context. Age showed a small but statistically significant positive association with affective outcomes, suggesting that lifespan factors contribute meaningfully alongside design perceptions. Perceived affective outcomes mean scores were similar for dVR and hVR, which showed negligible associations with outcomes; however, caution is advised when interpreting device differences due to survey‐mode alignment. Overall, results suggest that learners' perceptions of design quality, rather than device type, are more strongly associated with their reported motivation and engagement in immersive VR experiences across learning settings.