Mapping climate resilience and food security outcomes in smallholder agricultural systems research in low- and middle-income countries

Climate change threatens agricultural systems and food security in low- and middle-income countries. Seven agricultural interventions have been identified for their potential to improve both food security (FS) and climate resilience (CR) in smallholder systems. This review examines how FS and CR outcomes are measured across these interventions, where research has concentrated, and where gaps remain. We focus on simultaneous measurement of both outcomes in contrast to previous reviews that examined one or the other. We conducted searches in six databases. Using a combination of manual screening and ML classification we identified a subset of 127 studies reporting at least one FS and one CR outcome. Based on this subset, literature is concentrated on biophysical interventions; soil conservation, improved water management, and crop diversification, while enabling interventions such as improved market access, access to climate information and extension services, and post-harvest management and storage are sparsely represented. Most studies assess short-term outcomes at community or household level, providing highly context-specific insights. The focus on biophysical indicators restricts understanding of how smallholder resilience is shaped with enabling interventions beyond the farm gate. Similarly, emphasis on short-term impacts, and small study scales, limits development of systemic insights. Addressing these constraints requires a shift toward multi-level, longitudinal research and adoption of harmonized FS and CR indicators enabling comparability and scaling. Collaborative efforts among research networks, donors, and international organizations promoting standardized indicators and impact-evaluation frameworks will be essential to build coherent evidence base capable of guiding resilient food-system transformation under increasing climate stress.