The personalization–privacy paradox in social media advertising: a cross-national study of ad attitudes and eWOM

Purpose This study aims to explore how advertising personalization and perceived intrusiveness influence consumers' attitudes toward social media ads and their subsequent electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) behaviors. Using the privacy calculus theory and the theory of planned behavior, we examine whether personalized ads boost positive attitudes and whether intrusiveness diminishes them. Additionally, we analyze how these attitudes translate into positive or negative eWOM, comparing three EU countries (Poland, Portugal and Sweden) that operate under GDPR but differ in digital literacy and privacy concerns. Design/methodology/approach We conducted an online survey of Instagram users in three target countries. After data cleaning, the final samples included N = 337 (Poland), 200 (Portugal) and 196 (Sweden). Respondents rated established multi-item scales for ad personalization, intrusiveness, ad attitude and positive/negative eWOM intent. Data were analyzed using multi-group structural equation modeling to test the hypothesized model and compare effects across countries. Findings The results consistently indicate that higher personalization fosters more positive attitudes toward ads, while greater perceived intrusiveness results in less positive attitudes. Positive ad attitudes, in turn, significantly boost intentions for positive eWOM across all countries. Notably, strong ad attitudes also predict higher intentions for negative eWOM, suggesting ambivalent reactions to personalization. Additionally, perceived intrusiveness diminishes the positive impact of personalization on ad attitudes in Portugal and Sweden (moderation confirmed), but this moderating effect was not significant in Poland. Originality/value This research makes a novel contribution by integrating marketing and information systems frameworks and empirically testing them across diverse national contexts. Integrating privacy calculus theory and the theory of planned behavior frameworks, it addresses both the positive (personalization) and negative (intrusiveness) sides of targeted advertising, a distinction often omitted in single-country studies. To our knowledge, this is among the first cross-country studies to compare these effects within a unified model; by examining Poland, Portugal and Sweden together, the paper offers new insights into how cultural and regulatory contexts shape the personalization–privacy paradox in eWOM outcomes.