Archaeometallurgical Study of Middle to Late Western Han (c.140 BC – AD 8) Bronze Artifacts from Western Hunan, China

ABSTRACT Based on typology of cultural attributes, the present study classifies the middle to late Western Han period 21 bronze objects from western Hunan into two categories: objects with indigenous characteristics, and with Central Plains characteristics. The analytical results show that all samples are composed of lead–tin bronze and were manufactured using composite molds and two‐piece molds, with no obvious traces of post‐casting treatment. In terms of decorations, most indigenous samples are cast and characterized by string or band patterns, whereas the Central Plains‐related samples exhibit zoomorphic motifs using mold‐impression techniques as well as unique gilding techniques. Analysis of the lead isotope ratios indicates that the lead used in the two groups is generally similar. The origin of lead material should be derived from ore sources in western Henan, and Nanling region should be an important place of production. During the middle to late Western Han period (140 BC – AD 8), under the implementation of the state‐controlled salt and iron monopoly system, the governance over lead materials used in bronze production was also gradually centralized. Lead isotope analysis shows that the results of indigenous samples correspond to the typical isotopic characteristics of material from the middle to late Western Han period (140 BC AD 8). This comparison reflects that local bronze production in western Hunan was potentially under centralized state control during this period as a part of a broader bronze‐casting industry system. The results provide direct evidence for the central government's resource administration and political control over the multi‐ethnic mountainous regions of southern China during the middle and late Western Han period.