Black phosphorus quantum dots for precision oncology: From design to translation

Black phosphorus quantum dots (BPQDs) have emerged as a promising class of biodegradable nanomaterials for precision oncology owing to their unique physicochemical properties, quantum-confinement effects, tunable surface chemistry, and multifunctional therapeutic capabilities. Compared with many conventional inorganic nanoplatforms, BPQDs combine efficient photothermal performance, adaptable surface engineering, and intrinsic degradability, making them attractive candidates for cancer diagnosis and therapy. However, the successful translation of BPQDs from laboratory research to clinical applications remains challenged by physicochemical instability, complex nano–bio interactions, limited understanding of biological fate, and manufacturing and regulatory barriers. This review provides an integrated perspective on BPQDs by linking material design, nano–bio interactions, therapeutic performance, and translational considerations. We discuss the key physicochemical determinants governing BPQD functionality, including dimensional engineering, surface modification, defect regulation, and degradation behavior, and examine how these parameters influence biological identity, immune recognition, pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and clearance. Recent advances in BPQD-enabled therapeutic strategies, including photothermal therapy, photodynamic–photothermal combination therapy, chemo-photothermal systems, and immunotherapy enhancement, are critically summarized. Finally, major translational challenges involving scalable manufacturing, long-term safety qualification, regulatory standardization, and clinical development are assessed. By integrating these interconnected aspects within a unified framework, this review aims to provide guidance for the rational development and future clinical translation of BPQD-based nanomedicines in precision oncology.