Biochemical composition, nutritional properties, and antioxidant capacity of camel (Camelus dromedarius) milk, urine, and their traditional combination from Uganda

Camel milk (CaM) and camel urine (CaU) are traditionally consumed in pastoral communities in northeastern Uganda because of their perceived nutritional and medicinal value. However, information on their biochemical composition and antioxidant properties remains limited. This study evaluated the physicochemical characteristics, nutritional composition, selected metabolites, and in vitro antioxidant capacity of CaM, CaU, and their traditional 1:3 (CaM: CaU, v/v) combination (MUC) from northeastern Uganda. Standard analytical methods, including colorimetric assays, atomic absorption spectrophotometry, and high-performance liquid chromatography, facilitated the assessment of these matrices. The results showed that CaU had the highest pH (7.50), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (expressed as crude protein equivalent) (9.44%), and total ash content (3.35%). The MUC had the highest titratable acidity (0.27%) and moisture content (88.80%). CaM had the highest calcium concentration (1861.26 mg/L), whereas the MUC contained 566.67 mg/L of magnesium. Chromatographic analysis revealed that CaU contained the highest concentrations of ascorbic acid (837.11 mg/L), retinol (1288.15 µg/L), and α-tocopherol (342.99 µg/L). These antioxidant profiles were retained in the MUC matrix, which contained high total phenolics (534.93 mg GAE/100 mL). The MUC contained the lowest Jaffe-reactive creatinine levels (0.67 mg/L). The IC₅₀ values for CaM, CaU, and the MUC were 44.49, 33.17, and 35.11 µg/mL, respectively, indicating greater free radical-scavenging activity in CaU and the MUC than in CaM. These findings provide baseline information on the biochemical composition of camel milk, camel urine, and their traditional combination from northeastern Uganda. Although the MUC retained high concentrations of antioxidant compounds, this study evaluated only in vitro antioxidant activity and did not assess biological efficacy or safety. The high urea nitrogen levels in CaU (9213.33 mg/L) highlight the need for toxicological and in vivo studies before conclusions regarding its safety for human consumption can be drawn.