Farmers’ adaptive strategies to drought based on social capital and knowledge access as a pathway to rural livelihood security

Abstract Drought, one of the most devastating and pervasive natural hazards, has severely challenged the livelihood resilience of smallholder farmers in rainfed regions worldwide, making adaptation an undeniable necessity. This study explains the adoption of adaptive strategies among smallholder rainfed farmers, focusing on three dimensions of social capital (bonding, bridging, and linking) and two types of knowledge (technical-extension and indigenous-local). The research is applied and descriptive-correlational. The statistical population consisted of smallholder rainfed farmers in Kermanshah province (N = 45,000), western Iran, from which 385 individuals were selected via multi-stage stratified random sampling. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire and analyzed through structural equation modeling (SmartPLS). Findings showed that social capital in all three dimensions and knowledge in both types positively and significantly affect adaptive strategies. Perceived effectiveness partially mediated, while drought experience positively moderated these relationships. The model explained 45% of the variance in adaptive strategies. By designing a novel framework, this study, for the first time, uncovers the simultaneous interplay of social capital and knowledge with the mediating effect of perceived effectiveness and the moderating role of drought experience, demonstrating how these capitals can be leveraged to facilitate a transformative shift from a state of inaction to proactive adaptive agency. The findings offer an actionable framework for policymakers, illustrating that targeted investment in strengthening social networks, expanding extension services, and harnessing lived drought experiences can enhance the adoption of adaptive strategies by up to 45%, thereby taking a meaningful step toward improving rural livelihood security.