Integrated Assessment of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Practices in Government Primary Schools of Bangladesh

This study provides a comprehensive assessment of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) conditions in selected government primary schools of Dhaka, Bangladesh, using an integrated methodology combining the WASH Index, Water Quality Index (WQI), and Heavy Metal Pollution Index (HPI). A systematic questionnaire survey, on-site observations, and laboratory analyses of water samples were conducted across the selected schools, and the collected data were thoroughly analyzed to assess the status of WASH services and identify critical gaps. Results reveal that while basic infrastructure exists, significant gaps persist in hygiene practices, facility functionality, and microbiological water safety. The WASH Index ranged from 34% to 63%, with two schools (PS1, PS5) classified as “Basic Service” and three schools (PS2, PS3, PS4) as “Limited Service”; none of the schools achieved “Advanced Service” levels, and hygiene was identified as the most critical deficiency, with two schools scoring 0% on hygiene indicators. WQI values (33–38) classified all schools as having “Good” physicochemical water quality, and HPI values (37–43) indicated low heavy metal pollution. However, E. coli was detected at 6000 and 30,000 CFU/100 mL in two schools (PS4 and PS5), far exceeding the permissible limit of 0 CFU/100 mL. In addition, lead (Pb) concentrations (0.04–0.05 mg/L) exceeded the WHO guideline value of 0.01 mg/L in all five schools, indicating potential health risks to students. The findings highlight that infrastructure provision alone is insufficient; sustainable WASH outcomes require integrated interventions encompassing behavior change, routine monitoring, fecal sludge management, and institutional governance. This study provides actionable insights to guide evidence-based policy and targeted interventions for improving WASH services in urban primary schools.