Rice or millet? Crop assemblage variation in the southern Korean Peninsula (1200 BC–AD 500)

This study examines archaeobotanical crop assemblages from the southern Korean Peninsula dating between 1200 BC and AD 500 to assess the relative importance of rice and millet agriculture. Although rice cultivation began in the region around 1500 BC and is often assumed to have intensified over time, the extent to which it replaced the cultivation of other crops remains unclear. Using correspondence analysis (CA) and canonical correspondence analysis (CCA), the study identifies multiple crop assemblage groups, including millet-dominant assemblages that persisted into the early stages of state formation. We argue that rice cultivation depended on specific socio-ecological conditions, including warm temperatures, reliable water, flat arable land, and sufficient labor; where these requirements were not fully met, communities continued to rely on millet, although they cultivated rice on a limited scale. Overall, the study challenges linear models linking social complexity with intensified rice agriculture and highlights the resilience of multi-cropping economies.