Sexual and gender minority parents’ experiences of lactation: a meta-ethnographic review

Abstract Background Although lactation has been widely studied, existing evidence largely reflects heterosexual and cisgender parents’ experiences. Sexual and gender minority (SGM) parents may face distinct embodied, social, and healthcare-related factors that shape lactation and access to support. This study aimed to synthesise and interpret existing qualitative research on SGM parents’ experiences of lactation. Methods A systematic literature review following a meta-ethnographic method developed by Noblit and Hare was conducted. The analysis involved a synthesis informed by queer theory and an intersectional perspective. Results Of the 528 screened records, 16 qualitative studies were included in the review. The analysis resulted in the core theme; Normative assumptions as barriers to lactation , which describes the main obstacles for a satisfactory lactation experience for SGM parents. The following four subordinate themes were identified: Layers of vulnerability and resilience ; Negotiating identity through lactation ; Creating connection through lactation and; The importance of support during lactation . Conclusions Lactation is commonly framed by normative assumptions about heterosexuality, cisgender identity, womanhood, and motherhood. SGM parents may not conform to one or more of these assumptions, which can create barriers to positive lactation and infant-feeding experiences. These findings highlight the need for inclusive and affirming lactation care, as well as intersectional research on how identity markers shape SGM parents’ experiences. Prejudice, cis- and heteronormative assumptions, and limited professional knowledge indicate important gaps in current healthcare practice.