Universal IDs, selective barriers: ethnic variation in demand for IDs in India

Universal identity documents are arguably essential for all citizens, yet demand for state recognition may vary across social groups. As theories of legibility predict that discriminated minorities will seek to evade the state’s gaze, low ID-coverage among marginalised groups is often attributed to citizen mistrust. However, ID-ownership rates cannot disentangle supply and demand. Focusing on Indian Muslims, I utilise World Bank’s India State Survey data to distinguish citizens’ applications for the voter ID and Aadhaar from the state’s capacity to deliver these documents. Using logistic regression models with controls for socioeconomic status and state-fixed effects, I find a behavioural paradox. Indian Muslims are significantly more likely to apply for both documents than not only non-Muslims, but also non-Muslim marginalised groups such as Scheduled Castes and Tribes – a finding that is theoretically unexpected given evidence of systematic under-provision of public goods to Muslim-dominated areas. However, conditional on application, Muslims are less likely to successfully procure a voter ID. By contrast, no such penalty exists for the Aadhaar. These findings challenge narratives of state evasion, suggesting that exclusion may persist not due to a lack of citizen demand, but due to selective barriers that block citizens’ active efforts for political inclusion.