From manuscript to material: reconstructing iron gall inks from a 12th-century Persian treatise

Abstract This study presents the first systematic investigation of iron gall inks described in the Bayān al-ṣināʻāt (“The Explanation of Crafts”), a 12th-century Persian technical treatise by Ḥubayš Tiflīsī. The original ink preparation methods were translated into English, reconstructed, and characterized, providing new insights into medieval Islamic ink-making practices. The reconstructed inks were analyzed using colorimetry, Raman microscopy, and micro-FTIR spectroscopy. Particular attention was given to the use of red vitriol, the iron source specified in most of Tiflīsī’s recipes, which contrasts with the green vitriol commonly referenced in Western sources. The results show that Tiflīsī’s inks display the characteristic iron–polyphenol complexes known for traditional iron gall inks. The red vitriol, experimentally reconstructed in this study, is mainly composed of iron(III) sulfate (Fe₂(SO₄)₃). These findings emphasize the importance of the Bayān al-ṣināʻāt as a historical source for comparative studies across different cultural and historical contexts.