Mobile and swappable battery and hydrogen storage with centralized logistics: A capsule-based network for resilience enhancement

This study proposes a capsule-based energy network that integrates mobile and swappable battery energy storage (BES) and hydrogen energy storage (HES) packs with centralized depots and a dedicated logistics fleet. A hierarchical two-stage optimization framework coordinates feeder scheduling with capsule dispatch while limiting information exchange between independent operators. The model includes depot charging and hydrogen filling, pack inventories, smart-customer operation, truck loading and unloading, time-space routing, and fragility-informed line failures. One hundred candidate failure scenarios are reduced to a representative contingency, after which the scheduling problem is solved deterministically. Four cases on a 69-bus feeder quantify the contributions of static BES, mobile BES, and mobile HES. Relative to the static-BES benchmark, combined mobile BES/HES support reduces forced-load-shedding cost by 58.97% and total emergency operating cost by 27.21%. Scalability is further evaluated using a larger paired system comprising a 123-node feeder and an expanded 59-node capsule network. In the principal four-depot, 85-truck configuration, mobile support reduces shedding cost by 56.45% and total cost by 25.98%, with a solution time of 701.1 s. The results confirm operational benefits across both original and larger network configurations.