Dual pathways of mobility-as-a-service adoption: evidence from a motorbike-dominated context in Hanoi

Rapid urbanisation in Hanoi has intensified traffic congestion, highlighting the need for sustainable urban mobility solutions. Mobility as a Service (MaaS) has the potential to improve transport integration, yet its adoption remains constrained by local behavioural and structural factors. This study examined determinants of MaaS adoption using a cross-sectional survey of 512 urban travellers. Separate Classification and Regression Tree (CART) models were developed for motorbike and alternative-mode users and internally validated through stratified five-fold cross-validation. Binary logistic regression was applied to confirm significant predictors while controlling for socio-demographic characteristics. Half of the respondents expressed willingness to adopt MaaS. Monthly transportation expenditure and parking difficulty were the main predictors among motorbike users, whereas ride-hailing frequency and proximity to public transport were most influential among alternative-mode users. The findings suggest that successful MaaS implementation in Hanoi requires user-specific strategies integrating digital payment systems, public transport accessibility, and first- and last-mile connectivity.