Molecularly Imprinted Polymer-Based Biosensors for Disease Biomarker Detection and Environmental Monitoring from Fundamental Principles to Emerging Applications

Molecularly imprinted polymers have emerged as robust synthetic recognition materials for selective detection of disease biomarkers and environmental contaminants owing to their high physicochemical stability, low production cost and tunable binding site architecture. Compared with biological receptors, MIPs provide durable and reusable sensing platforms suitable for operation in complex matrices and harsh environmental conditions. Recent advances in imprinting strategies have significantly improved binding site accessibility, adsorption capacity and selectivity, enabling detection of a wide range of analytes including proteins, hormones, metabolites, pharmaceuticals, pesticides and heavy metal ions. This review examines design, fabrication and sensing mechanisms of MIP-based biosensors for biomedical diagnostics and environmental monitoring applications. Particular emphasis is placed on the influence of template selection, functional monomer composition, crosslinking density and polymerization methods on imprinting factor, adsorption capacity and detection sensitivity. The role of key characterization techniques, including scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, quartz crystal microbalance analysis and electrochemical methods, in establishing structure performance relationships is discussed. Recent developments in template removal strategies and regeneration behavior are also evaluated with respect to improving sustainability and operational stability of reusable sensing platforms. Applications of MIP-based sensors for selective detection of cancer, cardiovascular and metabolic biomarkers, as well as environmental pollutants, are highlighted together with current limitations related to matrix interference, reproducibility and large-scale clinical validation. Future perspectives focusing on rational polymer design, improved fabrication reproducibility and integration with portable sensing platforms are outlined to support the development of reliable next-generation diagnostic and environmental monitoring technologies.