An integrated framework for evaluating nano-enabled agro-inputs: linking environmental fate, exposure and field translation for sustainable crop protection

Nano-enabled agro-inputs (NEAs) include intrinsically active nanomaterials and nanoscale systems that deliver pesticidal molecules, nucleic acids, biological control agents, nutrients, plant signals or defence elicitors. Their evaluation remains fragmented because studies use inconsistent dose metrics, delivery routes, biological endpoints and reporting standards, which limits comparison and obscures environmental and agronomic relevance. This review proposes an environmental exposure–response–translation framework that links material and formulation attributes with environmental and biological conditions governing transformation, persistence, target and non-target exposure and biologically delivered dose. The framework positions environmental fate as the connection between formulation design, biological efficacy, ecological risk and field performance. It also classifies NEAs by the mechanism of the active component and the delivery function of the nanoscale system, while defining minimum evidence requirements for characterisation, dose reporting, efficacy, environmental safety and field validation. By explaining why promising laboratory performance may not translate under realistic agricultural conditions, the framework provides a consistent basis for comparing diverse NEAs and identifying critical evidence gaps. Its application can support the development of nano-enabled crop-protection technologies that achieve measurable agronomic benefits at efficient doses without imposing unacceptable environmental risks. Graphical abstract