Exposure to pesticides and their impact on non- Apis bees

Bees play a critical role in pollination for various crops and wild plant species, yet their health is threatened by pesticide exposure in landscapes modified by human activities. Historically, research on pesticide exposure routes and impacts has primarily centred on honey bees, partly as the only model species required in environmental risk assessments (ERAs) for pollinators, as they hold a unique position. Recently, it has been observed that there is growing interest in studying pesticide exposure and its impact on non-Apis bees, in addition to other species that exhibit social behaviour, such as stingless and bumble bees, as well as solitary bee species. These non-Apis taxa differ significantly from Apis bees and others in key ecological characteristics, such as temporal and spatial activity patterns, nesting habits, foraging behaviours, and social complexity levels. We present a review of existing evidence on pesticide exposure pathways and the impacts on non-Apis bees. Despite increasing research efforts, current knowledge of exposure routes and their impacts across biological scales, landscapes, and in the context of complex stressors remains limited. Nevertheless, several promising research approaches have emerged, emphasizing the need to better characterize exposure pathways, extrapolate observed effects across diverse species, and assess the extent to which current findings derived primarily from a few species and studies on neonicotinoids conducted under controlled environments can be applied to broad range of species and ecological strategies in world bees’ populations. Advancing research in these areas is crucial for improving ERAs and informing policy decisions related to pesticide regulation.