Status and perspective of neonicotinoid insecticides from ecological toxicity and residue

Abstract Neonicotinoids are a group of systemic insecticides that are used extensively in agriculture, accounting for approximately 25% of the global market. The efficacy and systemic action of these compounds make them effective agents that bind to insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). In particular, nitroguanidines had a dominant market share of approximately 86%, driven by insecticide activity in Asia and the Americas. However, the extensive utilization and contamination of these substances pose a significant threat to pollinators, aquatic invertebrates, birds, and mammals. These concerns have prompted significant regulatory actions, including the EU’s prohibition on the outdoor use of imidacloprid, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam; the extension of restrictions in France; and the phase-out of thiamethoxam and clothianidin in Canada, while their use persists at considerable levels in Asia and the Americas. In addition, synergistic toxicity is an emerging concern with Neonicotinoids and other pesticide groups. Therefore, robust monitoring of environmental media and development alternatives is required to effectively manage ecological safety. Such measures are necessary to ensure the security of food production whilst safeguarding human and ecosystem health.